Prothonotary Warbler
Least ConcernProtonotaria citrea
Visual Identification
Appearance
The Prothonotary Warbler is a striking bird with a bright golden-yellow head and underparts. Its wings are gray, back is greenish, and it has white undertail coverts. The bird's black eyes and bill contrast sharply with its vibrant plumage, and white patches on its tail are visible during flight.
Males are more brightly colored than females. Females have a duller yellow head and underparts, with a greenish wash on the crown and nape, and more olive-gray on the back. Juveniles resemble females but are even duller in coloration and have more pointed tail feathers.
Size
Length
13cm to 14cm
Wingspan
21cm to 23cm
Weight
12g to 16g
Habitat and Distribution
Habitats
Woodland
Garden
Wetland
Coastal
Urban
Farmland
Grassland
Desert
Tundra
Rainforest
Mountain
Savanna
Distribution
Prothonotary Warblers inhabit swamps, flooded bottomland forests, and wooded wetlands. They are found in the eastern United States during the breeding season, from Wisconsin to Florida and west to eastern Texas.
These warblers winter in the mangrove swamps and tropical forests of Central America, northern South America, and the Caribbean. In the US, they are most common in the Southeast, particularly along major river systems.
Elevation Range
Up to 1,300 meters
Climate zones
Temperate, Subtropical, Tropical
Distribution Map
This map gives you a rough idea of where you might spot a Prothonotary Warbler. The coloured areas show countries where these birds have been seen.
A few things to keep in mind:
- Birds might not be everywhere in the coloured areas, for example, they may be present around the coast of that country
- Where birds live can change with seasons and available food
- This map is quite simple - it doesn't show exact locations
We're working on making our maps even better! Soon, we hope to show you:
- More detailed maps for bigger countries, including state and region
- How birds move around during different seasons
Distribution by Region
Behaviour and Ecology
Bird Attributes
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Share your thoughtsBird Attributes Explained
Our bird attributes system rates various aspects of a bird's capabilities on a scale of 0-100, based on data from field observations, scientific studies, and expert knowledge.
Attribute Categories:
- Agility: Manoeuvrability, speed, and grace in flight or movement.
- Strength: Physical power, often correlating with size and hunting abilities.
- Adaptability: Ability to thrive in various environments or changing conditions.
- Aggressiveness: Territorial behaviour and assertiveness, particularly during breeding seasons.
- Endurance: Stamina, often seen in migration patterns or foraging behaviours.
Understanding the Ratings:
- 0-20: Very Low
- 21-40: Low
- 41-60: Average
- 61-80: High
- 81-100: Very High
Remember, these attributes are relative to other bird species and don't necessarily indicate superiority.
Hover over the icon next to each attribute for more information.
Tap the icon next to each attribute for more information.
Agility
Reflects the bird's manoeuvrability, speed, and grace in flight or movement.
The Prothonotary Warbler demonstrates impressive agility through its active foraging behaviour, frequently hopping along branches and hovering to catch insects from leaf undersides. Their ability to navigate dense swamp forests and swim short distances showcases remarkable manoeuvrability.
Strength
Indicates the bird's physical power, often correlating with size and hunting abilities.
Whilst capable of long-distance migration, these small warblers (12-16g) possess modest strength relative to other birds. They're equipped for their lifestyle of gleaning insects and building nests, but aren't particularly powerful birds.
Adaptability
Represents the bird's ability to thrive in various environments or changing conditions.
These warblers show strong adaptability through their unique cavity-nesting behaviour, ability to swim, and successful exploitation of various wetland habitats across different climate zones. They can thrive in both temperate and tropical environments and adjust well to artificial nest boxes.
Aggressiveness
Measures the bird's territorial behaviour and assertiveness, particularly during breeding seasons.
Males display moderate territorial behaviour during breeding season, defending nesting sites and singing persistently to establish territory. However, they're generally not notably aggressive birds and will peacefully join mixed-species flocks outside breeding season.
Endurance
Reflects the bird's stamina, often seen in migration patterns or foraging behaviours.
Their capacity for long-distance migration between North and South America, combined with their active foraging style and ability to maintain high levels of activity (singing up to 15 times per minute during courtship), demonstrates impressive endurance for a small warbler.
Diet
Prothonotary Warblers primarily feed on insects and other small invertebrates. They glean prey from leaves and bark, often hovering to snatch insects from the undersides of foliage.
Their diet includes caterpillars, flies, beetles, and aquatic insects. They occasionally supplement their diet with small snails and seeds.
Behaviour
Prothonotary Warblers are active foragers, often seen hopping along branches or probing bark for insects. They have a unique habit among warblers of nesting in tree cavities over water.
These birds are generally solitary outside of breeding season but may join mixed-species flocks during migration.
Vocalisation
The Prothonotary Warbler's song is a loud, ringing series of 'sweet' notes, often described as 'sweet-sweet-sweet-sweet'. The song carries well through their swampy habitats.
Their call is a sharp, metallic 'chip' or 'tink'. During courtship, males may sing up to 15 times per minute.
Nesting & Breeding
Breeding season for Prothonotary Warblers typically begins in April. Males arrive at breeding grounds first and establish territories, attracting females with their bright plumage and persistent singing.
Unlike most warblers, they nest in tree cavities or nest boxes, usually over or near water. Females construct cup-shaped nests using moss, leaves, and bark. They typically lay 4-6 white or cream-colored eggs with brown speckles.
Incubation lasts about 12-14 days, primarily done by the female. Both parents feed the nestlings, which fledge after 10-11 days. Pairs often raise two broods per season in the southern parts of their range.
Lifespan
The Prothonotary Warbler typically lives for 4 to 6 years, with a maximum recorded lifespan of 8.9 years.
Like all birds, lifespan can be affected by factors including predation, habitat quality, disease, and access to food sources.
Conservation and Status
Global Conservation Status
While currently listed as Least Concern, Prothonotary Warblers face threats from habitat loss, particularly the destruction of bottomland hardwood forests.
Conservation efforts focus on protecting and restoring wetland habitats, as well as providing nest boxes in suitable areas to support breeding populations.
Birdwatching Tips
- Look for them in flooded forests and swamps, especially near water
- Listen for their loud, ringing 'sweet-sweet-sweet' song
- Observe tree cavities and nest boxes in wetland areas during the breeding season
- In the US, visit wildlife refuges along major rivers in the Southeast during summer
Additional Information
Quick Facts
Other names:
Golden Swamp Warbler, Swamp Canary
Family:
ParulidaePredators
Main predators include snakes, raccoons, and birds of prey such as hawks and owls. Nest predators also include squirrels and larger woodpeckers.
Did You Know?
- The Prothonotary Warbler is the only eastern warbler that nests in tree cavities.
- Its name comes from the bright yellow robes worn by prothonotaries in the Roman Catholic church.
- These warblers can swim short distances, an unusual trait for a warbler.
Community Experience
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References
- 2
website: BirdLife International. 2021. Protonotaria citrea. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T22721765A137344170.
View source - 4
report, 2019: Partners in Flight; Rosenberg et al.
- 3
website, 2019: Partners in Flight
View source - 1
website: Historical Longevity Records of North American Birds
View source
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